The cinema of the Soviet Union, not to be confused with "Cinema of Russia The cinema of Russia began in the Russian Empire, widely developed under the Soviet and in the years following the fall of the Soviet system, the Russian film industry would remain internationally recognized. In the 21st century, Russian cinema has become popular internationally with hits such as House of Fools, Night Watch, and the exceptionally" despite Russian language Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages, and the largest native language in Europe. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of three living members of the East Slavic languages, the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian (and possibly Rusyn, films being predominant in both genres, includes several film contributions of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union The Republics of the Soviet Union or the Union Republics of the Soviet Union were ethnically based administrative units that were subordinated directly to the Government of the Soviet Union. Historically a highly centralized state, the decentralization and democratization reforms during the era of Perestroika and Glasnost conducted by Mikhail reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, although sometimes censored by the Central Government. Most notable for their republican cinema were Russian SSR, Armenian SSR The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Armenian SSR for short, was one of the republics that made up the former Soviet Union. It came into being when the Communist Party of Armenia proclaimed control of Armenia on November 29, 1920. On December 1, 1920, Prime Minister Simon Vratsian ceded control of the country. It later, Georgian SSR The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Georgian SSR for short, was one of the republics that made up the former Soviet Union, Ukrainian SSR The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or the Ukrainian SSR was one of the founders of the Soviet Union and a republic that made up the former Soviet Union from its formation in 1922 to its abolishment in 1991, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuanian SSR The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Lithuanian SSR for short, was one of the republics that made up the former Soviet Union. It was established after Soviet Occupation of Lithuania in 1940 and existed to 1990 (although there was a failed attempt to establish government in Lithuania by Bolshevik military force in 1918-1919), Byelorussian SSR The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Belarusian: Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка [БССР] Belaruskaya Savetskaya Satsyyalistychnaya Respublika [BSSR]; Russian: Белору́сская Сове́тская Социалисти́ческая Респу́блика [БССР] and Moldavian SSR. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, a type of art that realistically depicts subjects of social concern, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union.

Contents

Historical outline

A 1926 Soviet poster for The Battleship Potemkin The Battleship Potemkin , sometimes rendered as The Battleship Potyomkin, is a 1925 silent film directed by Sergei Eisenstein and produced by Mosfilm. It presents a dramatised version of the mutiny that occurred in 1905 when the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin rebelled against their oppressive officers of the Tsarist regime.

The new state, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , occasionally called the United Soviet Socialist Republic, was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик​ (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh, officially came into existence on December 30 December 30 is the 364th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There is one day remaining until the end of the year, 1922 1922 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. From the outset, it was held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its mass popularity among the established citizenry of the new land; V. I. Lenin, in fact, declared it the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of Communism, a position which was later echoed by Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the leader of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, between World War I World War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict that embroiled most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Entente and the Central Powers. Over 70 million military personnel were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. The main and the Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution is the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. In the first revolution in February 1917 the Czar was deposed and replaced with the Provisional government, and in the second revolution in October the Provisional Government was removed and, most of the film industry, and the general infrastructure needed to support it (e.g. electrical power), was in a shambles. The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between Moscow Moscow (Russian: Москвa, romanised: Moskva, IPA: [mɐˈskva] ; see also other names) is the capital and the largest city of Russia. It is also the largest metropolitan area in Europe, and ranks among the largest urban areas in the world. Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, religious, financial, educational, and transportation and St. Petersburg in Russia, and most were out of commission. Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia, had fled the country or were moving ahead of the Red Army The Red Army was the armed force first organized by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War in 1918 and, in 1922, became the army of the Soviet Union forces as they pushed further and further south into the remainder of the Russian Empire The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire the world had seen, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire. At one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe, across Asia,. Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking. Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what of the industry remained in private hands. As this amounted mostly to cinema houses A movie theater, movie theatre, picture theatre, film theater or cinema is a venue, usually a building, for viewing motion pictures, the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet ideology An ideology is a set of aims and ideas, especially in politics. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below) and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to all. Ironically, the first new film released in Soviet Russia The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , also called the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the Russian SFSR and the RSFSR for short, was the largest and most populous of the fifteen Soviet republics of the Soviet Union and became the Russian Federation after the collapse of the Soviet Union. It was by far the largest sub- did not exactly fit this mold: this was Father Sergius, a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited. It appeared on Soviet screens in 1918.

Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most notorious of which were the agitki - propaganda films intended to "agitate", or energize and enthuse, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order. These short (often one small reel) films were often simple visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to indoctrinate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen.

Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema. Dziga Vertov Dziga Vertov January 15 (New Style), 1896–February 12, 1954) was a Soviet pioneer documentary film, newsreel director and cinema theorist. His filming practices and theories paved the way to Cinéma vérité style of documentary moviemaking's newsreel series Kino-Pravda Kino-Pravda was a newsreel series by Dziga Vertov, Elizaveta Svilova, and Mikhail Kaufman, the best known of these, lasted from 1922 to 1925 and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote Socialist realism Socialist realism is a teleologically-oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of socialism and communism. Although related, it should not be confused with social realism, a type of art that realistically depicts subjects of social concern but also to experiment with cinema.

Still, in 1921 , there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year.[citation needed] Its rapid success, utilizing old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened.[citation needed] Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again - there were places to show the films - albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view. In this context, the directors and writers who had remained in support of the objectives of Communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors. New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining "Soviet film" as something distinct and better from the output of "decadent capitalism". The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society.

Eisenstein Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein was a revolutionary Soviet Russian film director and film theorist noted in particular for his silent films Strike, Battleship Potemkin and October, as well as historical epics Alexander Nevsky and Ivan the Terrible. His work vastly influenced early filmmakers owing to his innovative use of and writings about montage's Battleship Potemkin The Battleship Potemkin , sometimes rendered as The Battleship Potyomkin, is a 1925 silent film directed by Sergei Eisenstein and produced by Mosfilm. It presents a dramatised version of the mutiny that occurred in 1905 when the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin rebelled against their oppressive officers of the Tsarist regime was released to wide acclaim in 1925; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, preaching the party line about the virtues of the proletariat. The party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.

One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War World War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, color movies This article discusses the evolution and technology behind color photographic film, with specific focus on motion pictures such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky Alexander Nevsky is a 1938 historical drama film directed by Sergei Eisenstein, in association with Dmitry Vasiliev and a script co-written with Pyotr Pavlenko, who were assigned to insure Eisenstein did not stray into "formalism" and to facilitate shooting on a reasonable timetable. It was produced by Goskino via the Mosfilm production and Ivan Grozny.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet Cinema produced Ballada o Soldate (Ballad of a Soldier Ballad of a Soldier, is a 1959 Soviet film directed by Grigori Chukhrai and starring Vladimir Ivashov and Zhanna Prokhorenko. The film is set during World War II and shows how the Russian soldier Alyosha tries to make it home during a leave, meeting several civilians on his way and falling in love with Shura. The film was produced at Mosfilm and), which won the 1961 BAFTA Award for Best Film This page lists the Milo and nominees for the BAFTA Award for Best Film, BAFTA Award for Best Film not in the English Language and Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film for each year, in addition to the retired earlier versions of those awards. The British Academy of Film and Television Arts , is a British organisation that hosts annual, and The Cranes Are Flying.

Vysota (Height) is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the bard movement The term bard came to be used in the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, and continues to be used in Russia today, to refer to singer-songwriters who wrote songs outside the Soviet establishment. Because in bard music songwriters perform their own songs, the genre is also commonly referred to as author song ("авторская песня").

Screenshot from Grigori Chukhrai's Ballad of a Soldier Ballad of a Soldier, is a 1959 Soviet film directed by Grigori Chukhrai and starring Vladimir Ivashov and Zhanna Prokhorenko. The film is set during World War II and shows how the Russian soldier Alyosha tries to make it home during a leave, meeting several civilians on his way and falling in love with Shura. The film was produced at Mosfilm and (1959).

The 1980s saw a diversification of subject matter. Touchy issues could now be discussed openly. The results were films like Pokayanie (Repentance), which dealt with Stalinist repressions in Georgia The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Georgian SSR for short, was one of the republics that made up the former Soviet Union, and the allegorical science fiction Science fiction is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations on current or future science or technology. Science fiction is found in books, magazines, art, television, films, games, theatre, and other media. In organizational or marketing contexts, science fiction can be synonymous with the broader definition of speculative fiction, movie Kin-dza-dza!, which satirized the Soviet life in general.

Censorship

After Stalin Joseph Stalin was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. In the years following Lenin's death in 1924, he rose to become the leader of the Soviet Union, Soviet filmmakers were given a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories. However, the industry remained a part of the government and if any material was found politically offensive or undesirable, it was either removed, edited, reshot, or shelved. In rare cases the filmmakers managed to convince the government of the innocence of their work and the film was released. The definition of "socialist realism" was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals. Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality was changed from administration to administration.

Oddities created by censorship include:

Revolution and Civil War

The first Soviet Russian state film organization, the Film Supdepartment of the People's Commissariat of Education, was established in 1917. The work of the nationalized motion-picture studios was administered by the All-Russian Photography and Motion Picture Department, which was recognized in 1923 into Goskino, which in 1926 became Sovkino. The world's first state-filmmaking school, the First State School of Cinematography, was established in Moscow in 1919.

During the Russian Civil War, agitation trains and ships visited soldiers, workers, and peasants. Lectures, reports, and political meetings were accompanied by newsreels about events at the various fronts.

1920s

In the 1920s, the documentary film group headed by Vertov blazed the trail from the conventional newsreel to the "imagecentered publicistic film", which became the basis of the Russian film documentary. Typical of the 1920s were the topical news serial "Kinopravda" and the film "Forward, Soviet!" by Vertov, whose experiments and achievements in documentary films influenced the development of Russian and world cinematography. Other important films of the 1920s were Shub's historical-revolutionary films such as "The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty." The film "Hydropeat" by I. Zheliabuzhsky marked the beginning of popular science films. Feature-length agitation films in 1918-21 were important in the development of the film industry. Innovation in Russian filmmaking was expressed p articularly in the work of Eisenstein. The film "Battleship Potemkin" was noteworthy for its innovative montage and metaphorical quality of its film language. It won world acclaim. Eisenstein developed concepts of the revolutionary epic in the film "October." Also noteworthy was Pudovkin's adaptation of Gorky's "Mother" to the screen in 1926. Pudovkin developed themes of revolutionary history in the film "The End of St Petersburg" (1927). Other noteworthy silent films were films dealing with contemporary life such as Barnet's "The House on the Trubnaia." The films of Protazanov were devoted to the revolutionary struggle and the shaping of a new way of life, such as "Don Diego and Pelageia" (1928). Ukrainian director Dovzhenko was noteworthy for the historical-revolutionary epic "Zvenigora", the "Arsenal" and the poetic film "Earth". [1]

1930s

In the early 1930s, Russian filmmakers applied socialist realism to their work. Among the most outstanding films was "Chapaev", a film about Russian revolutonaries and society during the Revolution and Civil War. Revolutionary history was developed in films such as "Golden Mountains" by Sergei Yutkevich, "The Outskirts" by Boris Barnet, and the trilogy about Maksim comprised of "The Youth of Maksim", "The Return of Maksim", and "The Vyborg Side". Also notable were biographical films about Lenin such as Mikhail Romm's "Lenin in October" and "Lenin in 1918". The life of Russian society and everyday people were depicted in films such as "Courageous Seven" and "Komsomolsk" by Sergei Gerasimov. The comedies of G. Aleksandrov such as "Volga-Volga" and "The Blazing Path" as well as "The Rich Bride" by Ivan Pyryev and "By the Deep Blue Sea" by Boris Barnet focus on the psychology of the common person, enthusiasm for work and intolerance for remnants of the past. Many films focused on national heroes, including "Alexander Nevsky" by Sergei Eisenstein, "Minin and Pozharsky" by V.Pudovkin, and "Bogdan Khmelnitsky" by I. Savchenko. There were adapdations of literary classics, particularly Mark Donskoi's trilogy of films about Maksim Gorky composed of "Childhood of Gorky", "My Apprenticeships", and "My Universities." [2]

One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War World War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history, color movies This article discusses the evolution and technology behind color photographic film, with specific focus on motion pictures such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky Alexander Nevsky is a 1938 historical drama film directed by Sergei Eisenstein, in association with Dmitry Vasiliev and a script co-written with Pyotr Pavlenko, who were assigned to insure Eisenstein did not stray into "formalism" and to facilitate shooting on a reasonable timetable. It was produced by Goskino via the Mosfilm production and Ivan Grozny.

1950s

With the start of the Cold War The Cold War was the continuing state of conflict, tension, and competition that existed after World War II. On one side were the Soviet Union and its satellites, and on the other were the powers of the Western world under the leadership of the United States. The Cold War began in the mid-1940s and lasted into the early 1990s. Throughout this, writers, still considered the primary auteurs In film criticism, the 1950s-era Auteur theory holds that a director's films reflect that director's personal creative vision, as if he were the primary "Auteur" . In some cases, film producers are considered to have a similar "Auteur" role for films that they have produced, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 50s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year. The death of Stalin was a merciful relief to many, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by Nikita Khruschev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (17 April 1894 – 11 September 1971) was a leader of the Soviet Union, serving as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, following the death of Joseph Stalin, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de- two years later. This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow formula stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films.

Notable films include:

1960s-70s

The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many films, many of which moulded Soviet and post-Soviet culture. They include:

Soviet directors were more concerned with artistic success than with economical success (They were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue). This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical films. In keeping with Russian character, tragi-comedies were very popular. Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first.

Animation The History of Russian animation is very rich, but is so far a nearly unexplored field for Western film theory and history. As most of Russia's production of animation for cinema and television was created during Soviet times, it may also be referred to as the History of Soviet animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with technique. Tale of Tales (1979) by Yuriy Norshteyn Yuriy Borisovich Norshteyn , or Yuri Norstein or Yuri Norshtein (born September 15, 1941) is an award-winning Russian animator best known for his animated shorts, Hedgehog in the Fog and Tale of Tales. Since 1981 he has been working on a feature film called The Overcoat, based on the short story by Nikolai Gogol of the same name was twice given the title of "Best Animated Film of All Eras and Nations" by animation professionals from around the world, in 1984 and 2002.

These decades were prominent in the production of the Ostern 'Red Westerns' of the first type are often compared to 'Spaghetti Westerns', in that they use local scenery to double up for the American West. In particular, Yugoslavia, Mongolia and the Southern USSR were used. Some of the DDR made films were called Sauerkraut Westerns or Red Western.

In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema (1979), on April 25, a decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established a commemorative "Day of the Soviet cinema". It was then celebrated in the USSR each year on August 27, the day on which V. I. Lenin signed a decree to nationalise the country's cinematic and photographic industries.

1980s

The policies of perestroika and glasnost saw a loosening of the censorship of earlier eras[3]. A genre known as "chernukha" (from the Russian word for "black"), including films such as Little Vera, portrayed the harsh realities of Soviet life[4]. Notable films of this period include:

Soviet films

Main article: List of Soviet films

There are many movies which are well-remembered and looked upon fondly in the former Soviet republics; famous lines or jokes from these movies are often quoted and some have even become a part of the Russian language as sayings and idioms. Most of these classic Soviet movies were produced by Mosfilm and other state-owned film studios.

Genres

Movies

Action

Science fiction

Comedy

Drama

Notable filmmakers

Early personalities in the development of Soviet cinema:

Later personalities:

Soviet studios

See also

References

  1. ^ http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1
  2. ^ http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1
  3. ^ Butenko, I. A. & Razlogov, K. E., Recent Social Trends in Russia, 1960-1995, McGill-Queen's Press, 1997. ISBN 0773516107
  4. ^ Hertenstein, Mike, Idols and Icons (Part II) A Survey of Russian and Soviet Cinema

External links

Cinema of the Soviet Union (1917–1991)
Cinema of the Russian Empire (pre-1917) · Cinema of Russia (1991–)

Films A-Z · Animation · Festivals · Studios · Actors · Cinematographers · Composers · Directors · Editors · Screenwriters Films by year: 1917–1929 · 1930s · 1940s · 1950s · 1960s · 1970s · 1980–1991
World cinema
Africa

Burkina Faso · Egypt · Kenya · Morocco · Niger · Nigeria · Senegal · Somalia · South Africa
Americas
Latin America

Argentina · Brazil · Chile · Colombia · Cuba · Mexico · Paraguay · Peru · Puerto Rico · Uruguay
Northern America

Canada (Quebec) · United States
Asia
East Asia

China · Hong Kong · Japan · Korea · Mongolia · Taiwan
South Asia

Afghanistan · Bangladesh (Bengal) · India (Andhra Pradesh · Assam · Bollywood · Karnataka · Kerala · Marathi · Orissa · Punjab · Tamil Nadu · West Bengal) · Nepal · Pakistan (Karachi · Lahore · Peshawar) · Sri Lanka
Southeast Asia

Burma · Cambodia · Indonesia · Malaysia · Philippines · Singapore · Thailand · Vietnam
West Asia

Armenia · Azerbaijan · Cyprus · Georgia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Lebanon · Palestine · Saudi Arabia · Syria · Tajikistan · Turkey · U.A.E.
Europe

Albania · Austria · Belgium · Bulgaria · Croatia · Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Faroe Islands · Finland · France · Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Latvia · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Macedonia · Moldova · Montenegro · Netherlands · Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia (Russian Empire · Soviet Union) · Serbia · Slovakia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Ukraine · United Kingdom (Scotland · Wales) · Yugoslavia
Oceania

Australia · Fiji · New Zealand

Categories: Cinema of the Soviet Union | Cinema of Russia

 

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Thu Jul 9 21:14:46 2009. [ refresh local cache ]
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

[Hide]▼
[Hide]▲