A windmill is a machine which converts the energy of wind to rotational motion by means of adjustable vanes called sails. The main use is for a grinding mill A grinding mill is a unit operation designed to break a solid material into smaller pieces. There are many different types of grinding mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand , working animal, wind (windmill) or water (watermill). Today they are also powered by electricity powered by the wind, reducing a solid or coarse substance into pulp or minute grains, by crushing, grinding, or pressing.^[1][2] Windmills have also provided energy to sawmills The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD is the earliest sawmill. It is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism, paper mills A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier machine or similar apparatus, hammermills The basic principle is straightforward. A hammermill is essentially a steel drum containing a vertical or horizontal rotating shaft or drum on which hammers are mounted. The hammers are free to swing on the ends of the cross, or fixed to the central rotor. The rotor is spun at a high speed inside the drum while material is fed into a feed hopper, and windpumps for obtaining fresh water from underground or for drainage The earliest archaeological record of an advanced system of drainage comes from the Indus Valley Civilization from around 3100 BC in what is now Pakistan and North India. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the civilization were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban (especially of land below sea level).

History

The windwheel of the Greek Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian engineer Heron of Alexandria Hero of Alexandria (Greek: Ἥρων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς) (c. 10–70 AD). was an ancient Greek mathematician who was a resident of a Roman province (Ptolemaic Egypt); he was also an engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the in the 1st century marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.^[3][4] Another early example of a wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel A prayer wheel is a cylindrical 'wheel' on a spindle made from metal, wood, stone, leather, or even coarse cotton. Traditionally, the mantra Om Mani Padme Hum is written in Sanskrit externally on the wheel. Also sometimes depicted are Dakinis, Protectors and very often the 8 auspicious symbols Ashtamangala. According to the Tibetan Buddhist, which was used in ancient Tibet Tibet is a plateau region in Asia and a disputed territory, north of the Himalayas. It is home to the indigenous Tibetan people, and to some other ethnic groups such as Monpas and Lhobas, and is inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people. Tibet is the highest region on earth, with an average elevation of 4,900 metres (16,000 ft). It and China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity since the 4th century.^[5]

Vertical-axis windmills

The first practical windmills were the vertical axle windmills invented in eastern Persia Greater Iran refers to the regions that have significant Iranian cultural influence. It roughly corresponds to the territory on the Iranian plateau, stretching from the Caucasus to the Indus River in Pakistan and conform to the historical understanding of the full territory of "Iran." It is also widely referred to as Greater Persia in, as recorded by the Persian geographer Geography and cartography in medieval Islam refers to the advancement of geography, cartography and the earth sciences in the medieval Islamic civilization. During the Middle Ages, Islamic geography was driven by a number of factors: the Islamic Golden Age, parallel development of Islamic astronomy and Islamic mathematics, translation of ancient Estakhri in the 9th century.^[6][7] The authenticity of an earlier anecdote of a windmill involving the second caliph The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word خليفة Khalīfah (help·info) which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following Muhammad's ( Umar Umar , also known as Omar, Umar the Great or Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an (AD 634–644) is questioned on the grounds that it appears in a 10th-century document.^[8] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were quite different from the later European horizontal-axis versions. Windmills were in widespread use across the Middle East The Middle East is a region that encompasses southwestern Asia and Egypt. In some contexts, the term has recently been expanded in usage to sometimes include Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Caucasus and Central Asia, and North Africa. It's often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north. It is also sometimes known as Middle Asia or Inner Asia, and is within the scope of the wider Eurasian continent, and later spread to China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity and India The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent and other terms, is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate south of the Himalayas, forming a land mass which extends southward into the Indian Ocean from there.^[9]

Some popular treatments of the subject have speculated that, by the 9th century, the Afghanistan-style vertical-axle mills spread to Europe through Al-Andalus Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation in the parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Berbers and African Muslims (given the generic name of Moors), at various times in the period between 711 and 1492 (Islamic Spain).^[10] This has been denied by the specialist of medieval European technology, Lynn White Jr., who points out that there is no evidence (archaeological or documentary) that the Afghanistan-style vertical-axle windmill spread as far west as Al-Andalus,^[11] and notes that "all Iberian windmills rotated on horizontal axles until towards the middle of the fifteenth century."^[12] Another historian of technology, Michael Jonathan Taunton Lewis, suggested an alternative route of transmission for the Islamic horizontal-shaft windmill, with its diffusion to the Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire as it existed during the Middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by the Byzantine emperors, direct successors to the ancient Roman emperors. It was called the Roman Empire and also Romania (Greek: Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía) by its inhabitants and neighbours. As the distinction and its subsequent transformation into the vertical-shaft windmill in Europe.^[13] Late medieval verticle-axle windmills similar to the Islamic/Persian design can be found along this route, particularly in Karpathos Karpathos is the second largest of the Greek Dodecanese islands, in the southeastern Aegean Sea. The island includes the municipality of Karpathos plus the community of Olympos. Part of Olympos also extends north to the neighboring Saria Island. From its remote position Karpathos has preserved many peculiarities of dress, customs and dialect, the, Greece Greece (English: /ˈɡriːs/ ; Greek: Ελλάδα, Elláda, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen); Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellás, IPA: [helːás]), also known as Hellas and officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in southeastern Europe, situated on, and Kandia Heraklion or Iraklion , is the largest city and capital of Crete. It is also the fourth largest city in Greece. Its name is also spelled Herakleion, a transliteration of the ancient Greek and Katharevousa name, Ἡράκλειον, or Iraklio, among other variants. For centuries it was known as Candia, a Venetian adaptation of the earlier Greek, Crete Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea at 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi). Crete is one of the 13 peripheries of Greece and covers the same area as the Greek region of Crete from before the 1987 administrative reform. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage. The Crusades The Crusades were a series of religiously sanctioned military campaigns waged by much of Latin[ambiguous] Christian Europe, particularly the Franks of France and the Holy Roman Empire. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. Other campaigns in Spain has also been suggested as another possible route of transmission, though in the sense of "stimulus diffusion," where the idea was diffused rather than the technology itself.^[14] However, the debate about whether the European vertical-shaft windmill evolved from the Islamic horizontal-shaft windmill or was an independent development remains unresolved.^[13]

Horizontal-axis windmills

Fixed windmills, oriented to the prevailing wind were extensively used in the Cyclades The Cyclades are a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea, south-east of the mainland of Greece; and an administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands around (κυκλάς) the sacred island of Delos. The Cyclades is where the native Greek breed of cat ( islands of Greece. The economies of power and transport allowed the use of these 'offshore' mills for grinding grain transported from the mainland and flour returned. A 1/10th share of the flour was paid to the miller in return for his service. This type would mount triangular sails when in operation.^{[citation needed]}

A similar type of vertical-shaft windmill with rectangle blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in 13th-century China China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity (during the Jurchen Jin Dynasty in the north), introduced by the travels of Yelü Chucai to Turkestan Turkestan, spelled also as Turkistan in Asian history, the regions of Central Asia lying between Siberia on the north; Tibet, modern day Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran on the south; the Gobi Desert on the east; and the Caspian Sea on the west. It has been referenced in many Turkic and Persian sagas and is an integral part of Turan. Oghuz Turks ( in 1219.^[15]

Horizontal-axle windmills that turn to face the wind

In northwestern Europe Europe is one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Caucasus region (Specification of borders) and the Black Sea to the southeast. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean and, the horizontal-axle or vertical windmill (so called due to the dimension of the movement of its sails) dates from the last quarter of the 12th century in the triangle of northern France France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian,, eastern England The area now called England has been settled by people of various cultures for about 35,000 years, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant and Flanders Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen , French: Flandre, German: Flandern) is the (political) community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Over the course of history, the geographical territory that was called "Flanders" has. Lynn White Jr. claims that the first certain reference to the European horizontal-axle windmill is dated to 1185 in Weedley, Yorkshire.^[16] (This predates Joseph Needham Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA , also known as Li Yuese (simplified Chinese: 李约瑟; traditional Chinese: 李約瑟; pinyin: Lǐ Yuēsè: Wade-Giles: Li Yüeh-Sê), was a British academic and sinologist known for his research and writing on the history of Chinese science. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1941's claim that the earliest known reference is from the 1191 chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelond, in which a Dean Herbert of East Anglia East Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of the East Anglian princess Etheldreda, the Isle of supposedly competed with the mills of the abbey of Bury St Edmunds).^[17] These earliest mills were used to grind cereals. The evidence at present is that the earliest type was the sunk post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mill's main structure (the "body" or "buck") is balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill is able to rotate to face the wind direction; an essential requirement for windmills to operate economically in North-Western Europe, where wind directions are variable. By the end of the thirteenth century the masonry tower mill, on which only the timber cap rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. In the Netherlands these stone towerlike mills are called "round or eight-sided stone stage mills, ground-sailers (windmills with sails reaching almost down to the ground), mound mills, etc." (Dutch: ronde/achtkante stenen stelling molens, grond-zeilers, beltmolens, etc.). Dutch tower mills ("torenmolens") are always cylindrical (such as atop castle or city wall towers). Because only the cap of the tower mill needed to be turned the main structure could be made much taller, allowing the sails to be made longer, which enabled them to provide useful work even in low winds. Such mills often have a small auxiliary set of sails called a fantail at the rear of the cap and at right angles to the sails; this rotates the cap through gearing so that the sails face into the wind.

• Post mills in Germany are Bockwindmühlen, Paltrockmühlen or Wippmühlen.
• Smock mills in Germany can be Sockelgeschoßholländer or Galerieholländer.
• Tower mills in Germany can be Turmholländer, Galerieholländer, Erdholländer or Bergholländer

Windmills were often built on top of castle towers or city walls, and were a unique part of a number of fortifications in New France New France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River, by Jacques Cartier in 1534, to the cession of New France to Spain and Britain in 1763. At its peak in 1712 (before the Treaty of Utrecht), the territory of New France extended from Newfoundland to the Rocky, such as at Fort Senneville.

The familiar lattice style of windmill sails (also called "common" sails) allowed the miller to attach sailcloths to the sails (while applying a brake). Trimming the sails allowed the windmill to turn at near the optimal speed in a large range of wind velocities. The fantail, a small windmill mounted at right angles to the main sails which automatically turns the heavy cap and main sails into the wind, was invented by Edmund Lee in 1745, in England. The smock mill is a later variation of the tower mill, constructed of timber and originally developed in the sixteenth century for land drainage. With some subsequent development mills became versatile in windy regions for all kind of industry, most notably grain Cereals, grains, or cereal grains are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their fruit seeds (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis): the endocarp, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop; they are therefore staple crops. In their natural grinding mills, sawmills The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD is the earliest sawmill. It is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism (late 16th century), threshing Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of cereal grain from the scaly, inedible chaff that surrounds it. It is the step in grain preparation after harvesting and before winnowing, which separates the loosened chaff from the grain. Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain, and, by applying scoop wheels, Archimedes screws, and piston pumps, pumping water either for land drainage or for water supply. In 1772, Scottish millwright, Andrew Meikle Andrew Meikle was an early mechanical engineer credited with inventing the threshing machine, a device used to remove the outer husks from grains of wheat. This was regarded as one of the key developments of the British Agricultural Revolution in the late 18th century. The invention was made around 1786, although some say he only improved on an developed the spring sail made from a series of connected parallel shutters that could be opened or closed according to windspeed. To do this the sails had to be stopped, but the sails also incorporated a spring which allowed the shutters to open a little more to prevent damage if the wind suddenly strengthens. In 1789, Stephen Hooper invented the roller reefing sail, which allowed automatic adjustment of the sail whilst in motion. In 1807, William Cubitt a Norfolk engineer, invented a new type of sail, known there on as patent sails, using a chain and a rod that passed through the centre of the windshaft. These sails had the shutters of Meikle's spring sails and the automatic adjustment of Hooper's roller reefing sails. This became the basis of self-regulating sails. These avoided the constant supervision that had been required up till then.

By the 19th Century there were some 10,000 corn mills operating in Britain,^[18] but with the coming of the industrial revolution The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the, the importance of wind as primary industrial energy source was replaced by steam A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid and internal combustion The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the engines. The increased use of steam, and later diesel power, however, had a lesser effect on the mills of the Norfolk Broads, these being so isolated (on extensive uninhabitable marshland) that some of them continued in use as drainage pumps powered by diesel until as late as 1959. More recently windmills have been preserved for their historic value, in some cases as static exhibits when the antique machinery is too fragile to put in motion, and in other cases as fully working mills. There are around 50 working mills in operation in Britain as of 2009.^[18]

Rule of thumb

Such was the importance of the corn mills of Britain that a number of phrases used in their operation have found their way into common usage in the English language: When the wind was not strong enough to turn the sails the millstones would "grind to a halt", and the coarseness of the ground flour was assessed by the miller rubbing it between his thumb and forefinger, possibly giving rise to the term "rule of thumb A rule of thumb is a principle with broad application that is not intended to be strictly accurate or reliable for every situation. It is an easily learned and easily applied procedure for approximately calculating or recalling some value, or for making some determination. Compare this to heuristic, a similar concept used in mathematical discourse,".^[18]

See Flood control in the Netherlands The Netherlands has been struggling against floods since the first people settled there. Over 60% of the country lies beneath mean sea-level. Countless people have lost their homes and their lives to floods from the sea or the rivers that could not be held by the flood-defences. The importance of the protection has led the Dutch to dedicate a for use of windmills in land reclamation in the Netherlands.

In Canada and the United States

Windmills feature uniquely in the history of New France New France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River, by Jacques Cartier in 1534, to the cession of New France to Spain and Britain in 1763. At its peak in 1712 (before the Treaty of Utrecht), the territory of New France extended from Newfoundland to the Rocky, particularly in Canada, where they were used as strong points in fortifications.^[19] Prior to the 1690 Battle of Québec, the strong point of the city's landward defenses was a windmill called Mont-Carmel, where a three-gun battery was in place.^[19] At Fort Senneville, a large stone windmill was built on a hill by late 1686, doubling as a watch tower.^[20] This windmill was like no other in New France, with thick walls, square loopholes for muskets, with machicolation at the top for pouring lethally hot liquids and rocks onto attackers.^[20] This helped make it the "most substantial castle-like fort" near Montreal.^[21]

In the United States, the development of the water-pumping windmill was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North America, which were otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. They contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from wells to supply the needs of the steam locomotives of those early times. Two prominent brands were the Eclipse Windmill developed in 1867 (which was later bought by Fairbanks-Morse) and the Aermotor, which first appeared in 1888 and is still in production. The effectiveness of the Aermotor's automatic governor, which prevents it from flying apart in a windstorm, led to its popularity over other models. Currently, the Aermotor windmill company is the only remaining water windmill manufacturer in the United States. They continue to be used in areas of the world where a connection to electric power lines is not a realistic option.^[22]

The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. These mills, made by a variety of manufacturers, featured a large number of blades so that they would turn slowly with considerable torque in low winds and be self regulating in high winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a rod to the pump cylinder below.

Windmills and related equipment are still manufactured and installed today on farms and ranches, usually in remote parts of the western United States where electric power is not readily available. The arrival of electricity in rural areas, brought by the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in the 1930s through 1950s, contributed to the decline in the use of windmills in the US. Today, the increases in energy prices and the expense of replacing electric pumps has led to an increase in the repair, restoration and installation of new windmills.

1980s Wind Energy Experiment

In the early 1980s, several small companies started wind farms for commercial energy production in the San Joaquin valley region of California. The first such wind farm was created in 1981 when John Eckland, of Fayette Manufacturing Corporation placed the first windmills on land leased from Joe Jess, Sr. on the Altamont Pass. Later, as a gift to Mr. Jess for the continued use of his land, Fayette created a ‘stars and stripes’ themed windmill.^[23][24][25]

At one point in the mid-80s there were over twenty-six wind farm companies operating in this area of the United States. This eventually expanded to areas outside of Palm Springs, as seen as backdrops in several films of the era, such as Less Than Zero. However, later legislative efforts by California lawmakers eliminated the financial incentives and tax breaks that made these early alternative energy projects feasible (Fisher, 1985). Similar tax credits and incentives have brought a resurgence in interest in renewable energy sources in other areas of the country (Maloney, 2006).^[23][24][25]

Multi-sailed windmills

The majority of windmills had four sails. An increase in the number of sails meant that an increase in power could be obtained, at the expense of an increase in the weight of the sail assembly. The earliest record of a multi-sailed mill in the United Kingdom was the five sail Flint Mill, Leeds, mentioned in a report by John Smeaton in 1774. Multi-sailed windmills were said to run smoother than four sail windmills. In Lincolnshire, more multi-sailed windmills were found than anywhere else in the United Kingdom. There were five, six and eight sail windmills.^[26]

If a four sail windmill suffers a damaged sail, the one opposite can be removed and the mill will work with two sails, generating about 60% of the power that it would with all four sails. A six sail mill can run with two, three, four or six sails. An eight sail mill can run with two, four, six or eight sails, thus allowing a number of options if an accident occurs. A five sail mill can only run with all five sails. If one is damaged then the mill is stopped until it is replaced.^[26] Apart from the UK, multi-sail mills were built in Germany, Malta and the USA.

See also

• American Wind Power Center in Lubbock, TX
• Éolienne Bollée
• List of windmills
• Mill machinery
• Molinology
• Renewable energy
• Thomas O. Perry
• Watermill
• Wind turbine
• Runner stone

References

1. ^ Mill definition
2. ^ Windmill definition stating that a windmill is a mill or machine operated by the wind
3. ^ A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145-151
4. ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (10f.)
5. ^ Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, p. 105, ISBN 9004146490
6. ^ دانره المعارف بزرگ اسلامی - اصطخري‌، ابواسحاق‌
7. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
8. ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp.1-30 (8)
9. ^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
10. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), Shadows in the Desert, Osprey Publishing, p. 280, ISBN 1846031087
11. ^ Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 86
12. ^ Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change (Oxford, 1962) p. 161-162
13. ^ ^{a b} Lucas, Adam (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, Brill Publishers, pp. 106–7, ISBN 9004146490
14. ^ Bent Sorensen (November 1995), "History of, and Recent Progress in, Wind-Energy Utilization", Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 20: 387–424, doi:10.1146/annurev.eg.20.110195.002131
15. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 560.
16. ^ Lynn White Jr. Medieval technology and social change, Oxford, 1962, p. 87.
17. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 555.
18. ^ ^{a b c} Victorian Farm, Episode 1. Directed and produced by Naomi Benson. BBC Television
19. ^ ^{a b} Chartrand, French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Québec, Montréal, Louisbourg and New Orleans
20. ^ ^{a b} Chartrand, p 41
21. ^ Chartrand, p. 38
22. ^ Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas
23. ^ ^{a b} Land Use Cooperative article from 1985
24. ^ ^{a b} (2006) Maloney, P. New York Times, May 17th. 2006.
25. ^ ^{a b} The threat to wind energy, special report. (1985). Fisher, B. New York Times, October 26, 1985.
26. ^ ^{a b} Wailes, Rex (1954), The English Windmill, London: Routlege & Kegan Paul, pp. 99–104

• A.G. Drachmann: "Heron's Windmill," Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145–151

Further reading

• Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
• Chartrand, French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Québec, Montréal, Louisbourg and New Orleans.
• Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995)
• A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961).
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Hugh Pembroke Vowles: "An Enquiry into Origins of the Windmill", Journal of the Newcomen Society, Vol. 11 (1930-31)
• Roy Gregory and Laurence Turner (2009) Windmills of Yorkshire ISBN 9781840334753
• Edwin Tunis (1999), Colonial living, The Johns Hopkins University Press ", ISBN 0-8018-6627-2, pp. 72 and 73

External links

• Architecture: Windmills at the Open Directory Project
• Earth Science Australia, Wind Power and Windmills
• The International Molinological Society
• Windmills at Windmill World
• The Mill Database, Europe
• Rottingdean smock mill, Sussex UK, photo gallery

Categories: Windmills | Grinding mills | Sustainable technologies | Agricultural buildings | Pumps | Post mills | Smock mills | Tower mills | Wind power | Greek inventions

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